Causes of the Civil War Essay

ââ€"  North was opposed to slavery while the South was pro slavery ââ€"  The primary conflict of the civil war was whether the states had the right to decide what they wanted to do with slavery. (radical abolition vs pro slavery) ââ€"  One of the arising conflicts that led to the American Civil war was the growing abolition movement in the North ââ€"  which was an effort to end slavery in a nation that valued personal freedom and believed â€Å"all men are created equal.† ââ€"  Abolitionists: William Lloyd Garrison: The voice of Abolitionism. Originally a supporter of colonization, Garrison changed his position and became the leader of the emerging anti-slavery movement. His publication, THE LIBERATOR, reached thousands of individuals worldwide. His ceaseless, uncompromising position on the moral outrage that was slavery made him loved and hated by many Americans. Although The Liberator was Garrison’s most prominent abolitionist activity, he had been involved in the fight to end slavery for years prior to its publication. In 1831, Garrison published the first edition of The Liberator. His words, â€Å"I am in earnest — I will not equivocate I will not excuse. I will not retreat a single inch — AND I WILL BE HEARD,† clarified the position of the NEW ABOLITIONISTS. Garrison was not interested in compromise. He founded the NEW ENGLAND ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY the following year. ââ€"  Frederick Douglass: Born a slave in Maryland escaped to MA in 1838, became an outspoken leader of antislavery sentiment. Douglass served as an adviser to President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and fought for the adoption of constitutional amendments that guaranteed voting rights and other civil liberties for blacks. He provided a powerful voice then that was championing human rights. He is still revered today for his contributions against racial injustice.He also helped people escape to the North from the underground Railroad. ââ€"  Pro Slavery: John C. Calhoun: He believed that slavery was a â€Å"good positive good.† Calhoun endorsed slavery as ‘a good — a great good,’ based on his belief in the inequality inherent in the human race. Calhoun believed that people were motivated primarily by self-interest and that competition among them was a positive expression of human nature. The results of this competition were displayed for all to see in the social order: those with the greatest talent and ability rose to the top, and the rest fell into place beneath them.The concepts of liberty and equality, idealized during the Revolutionary period, were potentially destructive to this social order, Calhoun believed. With the stratification of society, those at the top were recognized as authority figures and respected for their proven wisdom and ability. If the revolutionary ideal of equality were taken too far, the authority of the elite would not be accepted. Without this authority, Calhoun argued, society would break down and the liberty of all men would be threatened. Political short terms : ââ€"  Dred Scott (1795-1858) was a slave who, in the 1840s, chose to sue his master’s widow for his freedom. He argued that his master, John Emerson, escorted him onto free soil in Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory, and thus had legally—even if inadvertently— granted him freedom. In 1857, the case reached the United States Supreme Court. The Justices ruled against Scott. John Emerson’s widow had since remarried, and she returned Scott, his wife, and his daughters to their owners, the Blow family, in May 1857, just months after the ruling. Both Dred and Harriet Scott died shortly thereafter, never to witness the legacy of their fight.The Dred Scott case was a major event on the road to the Civil War. The Supreme Court’s provocative opinion—which stated flatly that blacks had â€Å"no rights which the white man was bound to respect† and rejected the right of any territory to ban slavery within its own border s—inflamed public opinion in the North, leading to a hardening of anti slavery attitudes and a surge in popularity for the new antislavery Republican Party. ââ€"  The south wanted less government control, and more state freedom, while the North welcomed the central power of a government. ââ€"  Because of the strong animosity toward abolitionists in the South and the thought that Abraham Lincoln embodied these abolitionist ideals, he was left off of the ballot in many Southern states, and the more radical of the states, including South Carolina, threatened to secede from the Union if Lincoln was elected president. Despite believing that the Republican Party’s platforms were too moderate, abolitionist, for the large part, supported Lincoln. Lincoln lost the popular vote by nearly two million votes yet won the Electoral College by nearly sixty votes. Despite the fractured Democratic party, had they nominated only one president and still maintained all the votes the received between three candidates, they still would have lost the election regardless of also having more popular votes than Lincoln. The election itself is possibly the most significant election in American history due to the monumental issue of slavery and how divided the country was, so divided that when Lincoln was elected (it was only the second national presidential campaign ever run by the newly formed Republican Party), radically proslavery states of the South kept true to their threat and seceded from the United States. (he was a free soiler, he was willing to let slavery stay in the south as long as it did not spread.) ââ€"  The South viewed the election of Abraham Lincoln, as president, as a threat to slavery. After Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860, the South threatened to secede from the United States that questioned â€Å"State Rights.â₠¬  Economic short and long term causes: ââ€"  the vast majority of industrial manufacturing was taking place in the North. The South had almost 25% of the country’s free population, but only 10% of the country’s capital in 1860. The North had five times the number of factories as the South, and over ten times the number of factory workers. In addition, 90% of the nation’s skilled workers were in the North. ââ€"  The labor forces in the South and North were fundamentally different, as well. In the North, labor was expensive, and workers were mobile and active. The influx of immigrants from Europe and Asia provided competition in the labor market, however, keeping wages from growing very quickly. ââ€"  The Southern economy, however, was built on the labor of African American slaves, who were oppressed into providing cheap labor. Most Southern white families did not own slaves: only about 384,000 out of 1.6 million did. Of those who did own slaves, most (88%) owned fewer than 20 slaves, and were considered farmers rather than planters. Slaves were concentrated on the large plantations of about 10,000 big planters, on which 50-100 or more slaves worked. ââ€"  Since Eli Whitney’s 1793 invention of the cotton ‘gin, the cotton industry became a lucrative field for Southern planters and farmers. Utilizing slave labor, cotton planters and farmers could cut costs as they produced cotton for sale to other regions and for export to England. In exchange, Southern farmers and planters purchased manufactured goods from the North, food items from the West and imported luxuries like European designer clothes and furniture from England. The growth of the Southern cotton indu stry served as an engine of growth for the entire nation’s economy in the antebellum (pre-war) years. ââ€"  The other critical economic issue that divided the North from the South was that of tariffs. Tariffs were taxes placed on imported goods, the money from which would go to the government ââ€"  Southern Congressmen generally opposed it and Northern Congressmen generally supported it. Southerners generally favored low tariffs because this kept the cost of imported goods low, which was important in the South’s import-oriented economy. Southern planters and farmers were concerned that high tariffs might make their European trading partners, primarily the British, raise prices on manufactured goods imported by the South in order to maintain a profit on trade. ââ€"  North, however, high tariffs were viewed favorably because such tariffs would make imported goods more expensive. That way, goods produced in the North would seem relatively cheap, and Americans would want to buy American goods instead of European items. Since tariffs would protect domestic industry from foreign competition, business interests and others influenced politicians to support high tariffs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Having a Mobile Phone

This is a quite hot topic,espeaially for students in campus! net has collected this sample coposition for you! 1. 2. 3. Nowadays,with the rapid development of IT and information industry, cell phones play a dominant role in towns people's life. But, like everything else, they have both favorable and mffavorahle aspects. First, it's useful. As a wireless mobile telephone, it's easy and handy to early to wherever one goes and call the callee however far away he is. Therefore, it greatly facilitates people's life. Second, it's convenient. Whenever one meets trouble or something urgent, one can nmke a call immediately. Most important of all, it's a very helpful companion. With a multirfunction cell phone in hand, one can easily get on the Net, browsing the useful information, conducting e-commerce and doing whatever one can do via Internet. However, just as everything has two sides, the cell phone also has many disadvantages. To begin with, it's expensive to buy and costly to pay the hills, esp. that of global service. To make matters worse, it's also easy to lose and costly to get it repaired. Worst of all,it's not as clear as a family telephone and sometimes the number dialed is often not available. Last but not least, it's alleged the microwaves in it might do harm to people's health. In my opinion,with its expenses greatly reduced after China's entry into the WTO, it will face an ever brighter future in its development. Someday most of them will be developed into new Intemet-enabled mobile phones, which will be as useful as pocket computers. And I believe its advantages will not only offset its disadvantages, but also far outweigh them.

Manipulatives: Material and Students

7 Musts for Using Manipulatives By Marilyn Burns 1. I talk with students about why manipulatives help them learn math. These discussions are essential for first-time users and useful refreshers to refocus from time to time. I precede discussions by giving children time to explore a manipulative. Then we talk about what students noticed and I introduce the concepts they'll learn with the material. 2 . From day one, I set ground rules for using materials. We talk about the similarities and differences between using manipulatives in class and playing with toys or games.With toys or games, children can make up their own rules. With manipulatives, they are given specific problems and activities. I do make clear, however, that they're free to make discoveries and explore new ideas. It's also important for students not to interfere with one another. I step in when I hear a howl of protest as a student who needs one more yellow tile takes it from another group's table. Sometimes I open up th e discussion to the entire class. These impromptu reminders help keep students on track. 3. I set up a system for storing materials and familiarize students with it.It's important for students to know where and how to store materials. A clear system makes the materials more accessible. Some teachers designate and label space on bookshelves. Others use zip-top plastic bags and portion materials into quantities useful for pairs or groups. Still others place a supply of each material at students' tables so they're always within reach. 4. Time for free exploration is worth the investment. Whenever I introduce a new material, I allot at least one math period for this. Teacher demonstrations alone are like eating a papaya in front of the class and expecting children to know how it tastes. Free exploration time also allows students to satisfy their curiosity so they don't become distracted from the assigned tasks. Expect children to see if tiles can fall like dominoes; build tall towers wi th rods; or construct rockets out of cubes. After children have explored a material, I ask what they've discovered and record their observations on a chart so their classmates can get insights from their ideas. Then I assign a specific task. 5. For easy reference, I post class charts about manipulative materials.Charts not only send students the message that I value manipulatives, but also help students learn materials' names and how to spell them. In September I post a chart that lists all the materials we'll use during the year. For some materials, I post separate charts to list their shapes and colors. And I leave posted charts of students' discoveries about materials. 6. Manipulatives are a natural for writing assignments; having students write in math class has many benefits. Manipulatives provide concrete objects for children to describe. 7. I let parents get their hands on manipulatives, too.It's important for parents to understand why their children are using materials. Foll ow up by having children take home materials and activities to do with their families. (Hint: I wait until students have had some experience. )3 Marilyn Burns Answers Your Questions Marilyn Burns Answers Your Questions About Manipulatives Q. Manipulatives help my learners who struggle, but do my better Math students need them? A. Absolutely. The challenge of teaching any subject is to find activities that are accessible to all learners and have the richness to challenge more interested or capable students.Manipulatives are a wonderful resource for this. For example, I introduced fourth graders to Build the Yellow Hexagon. All students found different ways to build the hexagon and recorded their constructions with correct fractional notation. I asked the students who finished quickly: â€Å"How much larger is the red trapezoid than the blue parallelogram? † This challenged them to figure out how much more 1/2 is than 1/3. Q. How often should I use manipulatives in my teaching? A. Ideally, the materials are available for students to use at any time to help them think, reason, and solve problems.When a manipulative material is key to a lesson, I initiate its use. Q. What about students who work well with manipulatives but have trouble with textbooks? A. Showing the bridge from concrete experiences to symbolism is essential. While it may be obvious to adults, it can be a stretch for students to see how a 3-by-4 rectangle built with tiles relates to the textbook explanation that 3 x 4 means three groups of four. I help children make connections by demonstrating how a rectangle can be separated into three rows with four tiles. Q. How many kinds of manipulatives do I need?A. It makes sense to introduce one material and provide time for in-depth exploration. But one advantage of using a variety is that children can think about ideas in different ways. For example, we wouldn't want children to think of fractions as related only to round pies. Q. Can't I make che aper manipulatives? A. For years I've had children cut paper cookies to explore fractions, fold shapes for geometry, and use strips for measurement. Students also cut paper squares into the seven tangram puzzle pieces to see that the pieces make a square.However, to create other shapes, compare areas and perimeters, or make observations over time, paper pieces aren't durable or exact. Manipulatives stand the test of time and are precise. They also allow students to discover the mathematical relationships inherent in them. 4 Q. Where do I fit manipulatives in when there's so much to do? A. I use manipulatives as a support for teaching the math topics that are in the curriculum. I don't reserve materials for special days or assignments, but make them a regular and integral part of my general teaching. Q.I worry that children will see the same materials year after year and lose interest. Do they? A. School-wide planning to discuss which manipulatives you'll use and how to use them can be valuable. However, be careful not to designate certain materials or activities for only one grade. Most are appropriate for different levels, and repeat experiences help students stretch their thinking. For example, asking primary children to find different ways to make trains of six interlocking cubes using just two colors helps them explore different addends of 6.Older students can be challenged to figure out how many arrangements there are, not only for trains of 6, but also for trains of other lengths. Q. I don't have enough of any one kind of manipulative to use with my whole class. What can I do? A. Some teachers I know organize learning centers and have small groups work at them. Others introduce a few activities to be done over several days, and students make choices based on which materials are available. Still others pool materials for a week with other teachers to create class sets.In all cases, having students work cooperatively not only cuts down on the amount of mat erial you need, but also encourages communication — which in turn promotes learning. Q. How do I know when it's time for students to put away the materials? A. I let students be my guide. Observing them gives me valuable information. Sometimes I've assigned students the problem of finding all of the rectangular arrays using 6, 12, and 24 tiles. While some need to build all of the rectangles with tiles and then record them, other students stop using the tiles and are comfortable drawing the rectangles.Q. I worry older students will complain that manipulatives are babyish. Any advice? A. I rarely get this reaction. Most are delighted to get their hands on concrete materials. If you anticipate naysayers, talk about how, for example, architects often build models of buildings and engineers construct prototypes. Tell students that they'll use materials to model a problem or situation. Then be sure they first experience something that offers a challenge and that you provide free ex ploration time.

Physical Chemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Physical Chemistry - Essay Example This motivated John Dalton to study what makes different reactions unique. John Dalton, in his childhood years was educated by his father, and a man who managed a private school, called John Fletcher. He gained a wide understanding of science from the unofficial tutoring by  John Gough. At age 27 he was appointed to teach mathematics and  natural philosophy  at the  New College  where he taught for 7 years (Emery, 1988). Dalton formulated the theory after carrying out experiments into the behaviour of various gases. These experiments were based on 2 laws. The first was the law of  conservation of mass (by Antoine Lavoisier) that posits that the overall mass in a chemical process does not change (Dial, et al., 2009). The next law was the  law of definite proportions (by Joseph Proust) that posits that when a compound is stripped into its basic elements the masses of the basic elements will have similar quantities, irrespective of the amount of the original material. As a follow-up to the experiment conducted by Proust on oxides of tin, John Dalton conducted the same experiment on the oxides of tin. He also experimented with water and how it absorbed carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Dalton also started the study of various atomic weights depending on the combinations of the mass proportions, while taking the hydrogen atom as the base standard.   From the laws Dalton established the  law of multiple proportions that posits that when 2 chemical elements combine to produce more than one likely compound then the proportion of the second element’s mass that joined with a specific mass of the first element will be represented as proportions of whole numbers (Niaz, 2001). The results of this laid the foundation for Dalton’s Atomic Laws. These are made up of five theorems. The first theorem posits that an element, in its unmixed state, is made up of particles referred to as atoms. The second posits that all the atoms in

Paul Klee and Pablo Picasso The Glorious Artists Essay

Paul Klee and Pablo Picasso The Glorious Artists - Essay Example The essay "Paul Klee and Pablo Picasso The Glorious Artists" will help to understand the important role of such artists as Paull Klee and Pablo Picasso. Here will be discussed famous words of glorious artists. Abstract art never shows flowers as flowers, houses as houses etc. Mainly abstract art addresses issues that lie deeper than objects of material reality. Paul Klee was in a broad sense a transcendentalist who accepted that the material world was standing out among numerous realities open to human consciousness. His applications of color, pattern and miniature sign systems all address his endeavors to utilize art as a window to this philosophical rule. Klee challenged conventional limits differentiating visual art and composition by investigating another expressive, and to a great extent theoretical or graceful dialect of pictorial images and signs. Letters, arrows, musical documentation, old pictographs, or a couple of dark lines remaining in for an individual or question habit ually show up in his work, while seldom requesting a particular interpretation. The artwork that was chosen for the analysis is Winged Hero (1905). This artwork depicts a surreal humanlike creature with one wing. The artist wrote himself on the picture "Because this man was born with one wing, he believed he could fly. His attempts, of course, have only resulted in crashes and a broken left arm and leg". The odd creature could extremely well speak to a sort of self-portrait of the averageartist of the 20th century.

Tlatelolco Massacre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Tlatelolco Massacre - Essay Example The incident clearly violated the human rights of this century as it killed many innocent people of the subcontinent. Massacres have taken place through out the world at different instances. At some instances the governments of states itself has been involved in carrying out the massacres. In other words massacres can also be defined as the mass killing of people without any concrete reason. Furthermore the causes of some of the mass massacres which have taken place in the history of this world are yet to be known. One of the massacres of such intensity is known as Tlatelolco Massacre. This took place in the city of Mexico on the date of October 2, 1968. It is known to be the deadliest of massacres which took place over a century in the city of Mexico. This essay would further analyze the massacre from all view points and would further examine the role of CIA in response to the massacre which happened. The incident of Tlatelolco took place in October 1968 at Plaza de las Tres Culturas. It was an armed incident which took place in the response of student demonstrations in Mexico. The year 1968 marked different demonstrations of students taking place all over the world which inspired the Mexican students also. Furthermore the students started having different rallies all over the city to get some of their demands accepted. The students further started to threaten the authorities of dire consequences if their demands were not met. The students had different demands which in totality wanted abolition of certain authorities and wanted to get some officers dismissed. The students also had other demands which were not being accepted by the government. At that time the President of Mexico was Gustavo Diaz Ordaz. He was determined to end the student demonstrations through out Mexico through different means and he even took aggressive methods to end it up. Till October the demands of the st udents were yet not met and they threatened the event of Olympics which were to take place in Mexico 1968. This took the authorities with surprise and it is reported that the government asked for support from the US to stop any mishap from happening in the Olympics. The rallies of the students extended to such a number that it became alarming for the authorities and on the eve of October 2 at Plaza de las Tres Culturas aggressive means of methods were used against these students to make them finish their demonstrations. However after the massacre it was till 2003 not established as to who was responsible for the massacre. The government at that time claimed that some of the students hiding in other buildings had started firing on the security forces and in response the security forces did the same. Although different stories have been put up by the State department, FBI and CIA the view points of CIA would be emphasized more in this essay. The State department which was being informed by different sources about the incident is still not having clear claims as to how the incident occurred all the authorities have contradictory views as to from the first shot took place. The army is not blamed at by the authorities as the general of army was trying to disperse the crowd when the first shot was fired. The Federal Bureau of Investigation also had no prior knowledge as to how the inc

Write about Auguste Escoffier Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Write about Auguste Escoffier - Research Paper Example He moved to Carlton Hotel in 1899 to make his haunte cuisine familiar to the people. Emperor William II is reported to have said to Escoffier, "I am the emperor of Germany but you are the emperor of chefs"(Aakanksh, 13). He received an award of Legion of Honor in 1920 and was made officer of the order in 1928 (Aakanksh, 13). The beginning of 20th century made Escoffier France’s most skillful and popular chef. (Les, n.d) One of the most remarkable contributions made by Escoffier was to organize discipline in his kitchen by introducing a systematic method to eliminate chaos. This method was known as the brigade de cuisine system in which each section of the kitchen was to be handled by a different chef. Escoffier is popular all over the world. Even today his techniques, recipes, traditions and approaches to kitchen management remain highly influential today. (Les, n.d) Besides being a well known chef, Escoffier was a great writer as well. Le Guide culinaire (1903), Le Livre des menus (1912) and Ma cuisine (1934) are his books that have contributed to his writings. From 1911 to 1914, the monthly magazine Le Carnet d’epicure was published by Escoffier which became reputed in its time. Escoffier died on February 12 1935 in Monte-Carlo, Monacco. (Aakanksh,

Old to New, how will older ports Compete with new and larger Essay

Old to New, how will older ports Compete with new and larger Structures - Essay Example This paper will look at the measures that old ports can take to ensure that they are able to compete with new and more modern ports. Older ports should invest in equipment that will enable them to compete effectively with newer ports. Equipment used at ports determines the speed at which ports are able to operate and clear goods. Older ports should invest in equipment that will ensure that goods are cleared within the shortest time possible. This will enable the ports to operate efficiently and effectively (Gubbins 2003). For example, some of the old ports had no cranes as containers were rarely used for transportation in the olden days. These ports can ensure that they install such equipment that will make sure that goods at the port are handled effectively and with maximum care. It is important that old ports have the latest technology used in handling goods at the port. This will help them be able to effectively compete with newer ports. Newer ports have installed the latest technology that can be used to handle containers at ports. Older ports should follow suit and ensure that are able to purchase and install the latest technology used in handling goods at ports. Technology will enable them to be able to clear goods in record time. This will be advantageous to the older ports due to the fact that they do not have enough space to store goods for a long period of time unlike newer ports. Technology will also ensure that human labor is only used where it is needed. Ports should be able to have machines that are controlled by humans. Humans should not be employed to do tedious work in the ports. This will slow down the process of clearing goods and services and as a result, the port might come to a standstill as there is no enough space to store the containe rs. Older ports can enter into business partnerships that are mutually

Article 2 (Economics) Why Knockoffs Can Help a Strong Brand

2 (Economics) Why Knockoffs Can Help a Strong Brand - Article Example o the article has been provided by Renee Gosline’s study in Massachusetts Institute of Technology and also by Yi Qian of the National Bureau of Economic Research. According to the research findings of the two above mentioned researchers, counterfeits serve as a passage to the original products and have positive effects on the sales of the original brand products. The counterfeits brands therefore according to the article can be said to have more advertising effect than substitution effects and therefore pose no much danger to the original brands. They actually save them from more advertisement charges since sooner or later the consumers realize the difference between the original and the counterfeit and move to the original. This knockoff effect does not however affect only the formal brands which have trademarks and are protected by law. The article further explains that even individual creators with their own unique line of designs and creativity can have copies of their work being reproduced. The overall effect and outcome is however the same as that of the formal brands since the consumers will realize the difference of the original and the counterfeit and move to the original. Raustiala, Karl and Springman, Chris. â€Å"Why Knockoffs Can Help Build a Strong Brand.† Freakonomics 9/5/2012. Retrieved from:

Delinquent Youth Subculture - Gang Research Paper - 1

Delinquent Youth Subculture - Gang - Research Paper Example What is the response to youth gangs? The aim of this paper is to research the phenomenon of youth gangs in the American society. This requires providing answers to the questions above, supported by data from both primary and secondary sources. Structurally, I have organized the text into six main sections. The first part or Introduction outlines the aim and focus of the paper. The second section centers on the gangs’ origins and history, as well as explains what a gang is. The third part identifies the types of activities and behavior characteristic of a gang. The fourth section provides some theoretical background to the concept, while the fifth focuses on the societal response to the youth gangs phenomenon. Finally, I conclude the paper with the sixth section that sums up the paper’s findings. Scholarly sources abound with youth gang definitions, one of the earliest being that of Thrasher (1927). Thrasher explained that a gang should be understood as a spontaneously forming group that is not attached to any specific part of society (Thrasher, 1927). A more recent definition of gangs views the latter as groups that consist of individuals who recurrently associate and are subject to identifiable organization in leadership and internal matters. These groups also identify themselves with or claim to have control over a particular territory within a given community, and are known to engage in illegal (often violent) behavior individually or collectively (Miller, 1975). Youth gangs are also believed to be â€Å"any denotable groups of youngsters who a) are generally perceived as a distinct aggregation by others in their neighborhood; b) recognize themselves as a denotable group (almost invariably with a group name); and c) have been involved in a sufficient number of delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent negative response from neighborhood agencies and/or enforcement agencies†

Mobile application Essay Example for Free

Mobile application Essay The rapid growth of Web 2. 0 introduced a number of new design patterns and architectural styles in web development. One of the notable techniques involves the mashing up of information from existing services to deliver value-added new services. This process effectively includes the drawing of content from several sources in order to create a new content or service. The resulting web page Is finally referred to as mashup of the existing content. While mashup services bring flexibility and speed In delivering new valuable services to consumers, the legal Implications of his technology are significant. The term mashup originates In the music branch, especially from mixing songs or samples from two or more songs, lyrics or background music to produce a new soundtrack . ln case of the World Wide Web, mashups are websites, web pages, web services or applications which combine data, Information, music, geotracks from more than one source Into one application, service or website. This is generally achieved by using third party application programming interfaces (Apr s) or open technologies such as Ajax, PHP or syndicated eds like RSS or ATOM. Based on service composition in Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) concepts, mashups are flexible and dynamic services.. Web 2. 0 takes us to a deeply service-oriented world, where we can exploit everyday services such as news, instant messaging and blogging via our desktops, mobile phones, PDA, BlackBerry and soon. Most of the time people are not aware of the actions behind the scenes in terms of the massive network of service interactions. Such services occasionally seem as if they are re writing the existing services. In fact they are mart compositions (mashups) of the existing ones. Known as Web application hybrid this smart way of combining the content from more than one source into an integrated experience is called mash up technology. One of my favorite Mashup Websites is Neibex. com. Neibex. com is a neighborhood explore. sing this tool you can specify the country that you are situated in and then the City, the postal code and the radius you want your search to take into account. You can look up just anything: find local events, cars, Jobs, real estate, twits, classifieds, restaurants, stores, pa and beauty, theaters, banks, ATM, hotels, auto, household services, doctors, clinics, hospitals and health services, businesses and web resources. It stands as a quick and direct way to find an ything you might be looking for in your close vicinity. Nelbex Is a conjunction of several APIs. First we can observe the use of The Google Base API that makes it possible to get Items In and out of Google Base; a free service for submitting various content for Google to host and to make searchable online. The service allows content providers to upload structured data (Including Jobs, vehicles, recipes, events, products, reviews, and otheirs) to Google, surface It across Google search properties, and syndicate It Vla apls, gadgets and gadget ads. Next we see the use of the Google Maps API, which allows for the embedding of Google Maps onto web pages of outside developers, using a simple JavaScript Interface or a Flash Interface. It Is designed to work on both mobile devices as well as traditional desktop browser applications. The API includes language localization for over 50 languages, secure (HTTPS) connection by Google Maps API Premier customers. Furtheirmore ,Neibex takes the use of Yahoo Local Search APIs that give users access to a comprehensive database of information and content in Yahoo. Local ranging from business information, to user comments, to ratings. Data includes business address and phone, category, rating, distance, URL and traffic alerts. Yahoo Local makes a great addition to any mashup, bringing in location-based relevancy and the additional context of what real people have experienced in these places. Moreover we see the use of The Twitter micro-blogging service that includes two Restful APIs. The Twitter REST API methods allow developers to access core Twitter data. This includes update timeliness, status data, and user information. And the Search API methods give developers methods to interact with Twitter Search and trends data. Also Neibex. com with The Google Friend Connect API gives developers an easy way for one-click user authentication using any of Google, Yahoo, AIM, or Open ID accounts. Google Friend Connect APIs enable developers iintegrate social flows and data directly within a pages mark-up, via the Open Social standard pacification. Integrate existing login systems, registered users, and existing data with new social data and activities. Create social gadgets and services that are embeddable within millions of Friend Connect enabled sites. The main point is that every mashup website generally does not require programming skills and makes existing data more useful, for personal and professional use. There is a hug digit of mashup coming up every day, conjoining photos, videos, maps, social, music, and information. You Just have to explore your needs!

Martin Luther King and Henry DavidThoreau Essay Example for Free

Martin Luther King and Henry DavidThoreau Essay However with different motives; Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Henry David Thoreau were both admirable men that strived for a better government. As respected spokesmen they served as rebels against what they thought to be bad ones stopping at nothing. Not even jail. Henry David Thoreau and Martin Luther King Jr. were both brilliant men. Thoreaus Civil Obedience and Dr. Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail are perfect examples of their intellect. Looking at these documents and observing the tactics they use while attempting to move their audience toward their ultimate goal, one can see the finesse that both men possessed. Thoreau and Dr. King lived during two different centuries. So being that they were vocalist and activist on the current issues its almost certain that they would have a different motive. Even though their motive was poles apart, differing in many ways, both Thoreau and Dr. King wrote with the aspiration of obtaining a new form of government presumably resembling the republican one we exercise today. Although awfully controversial, to do so both men felt nonverbal actions such as breaking the laws was the only effective way. In spite of the fact that its relatively ironic, they viewed going to jail in order to make a mockery of an immoral or impractical laws put in place by the government was the very highest respect for law (King para. 5).Henry David Thoreau motive for rebelling against the government was to make it more of a democratic one. He had no respect for the way it was being ran. His proclaimed problem basically summed up to be that he felt the government was being ran like a monarchy, or in other words by a selective few and not an entire society as it should. It simply wasnt up to par according to his standards; for he stated this I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government (para. 4).Unlike Henry David Thoreau, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was an African American during the times of segregation. This alone is a critical manipulating variable in the equation of why the twos motive wasnt the same. Dr. King was all about helping America move towards a desegregated future. He had zeal towards annihilating all unjust laws which he stated to be a code inflicted upon a minority which that minority had no part in enacting or creating (para. 4), but for the most part he had an overall respect for the government. In conclusion, its safe to say that other than race and motive Henry David Thoreau and Martin Luther King Jr. were pretty similar. They both were men of their own opinion that could be classified as moralized radicals. As spokesmen of their time they were both good at what they did. Through the form of speeches, protest, letters, and etcetera they both exemplified Civil Disobedience (Thoreau). Thoreau, Henry D. Civil Disobedience. New York: Barnes Noble Books, 1849. 263-287. King Jr., Dr. Martin L. Letter from Birmingham City Jail. 16 Apr.-May 1963. Birmingham: Charles Moore, 1963. 1.

Crime: Free Will or Poor Choice?

Crime: Free Will or Poor Choice? Crime: Free Will or Poor Choice Abstract This is a social phenomenon, known as crime. Crime is known as a deviant behavior that violates existing norms, in particular, cultural standards showing how we humans should behave regarding shifting social, political, psychological, and economic conditions that have an effect on the rationalization of crime and the structural responses of the legal community, law enforcement, and correctional justifications made by Federal and State officials. The perspective theory for this is called the rational choice and deterrence perspective theory. Research has shown that there are various choices of theories that try to determine this type of deviance behavior known as crime. With all the current research information that is out there to review with their perspective responses, it still comes down to making that choice. This social problem sounds simple? Many individuals really dont know what the word crime is, there are also numerous individual who think they know what crime is and can do. However, it is one word that is hard to characterize in the English language. There were frequent debates to construct a precise classification. Will it be called an unsociable act that refuse to follow the guideline of behavior made in part by the community or have various oversights in which authorized retribution will be inflicted on that individual who has committed this act? The perspective for any of these definitions is that they relate similarly to things which society would agree is crimes. One aspect that tends to cause difficulties is the matter is that nearly every one of us thinks of crime as being the similar to evil. But this is not completely precise. There are many actions that many of us would look upon as appalling or maybe even corrupt and those would not be prohibited by law, and therefore are not called crimes. While some maybe be technically crimes, they are broken every day by good citizens, because the law does not fit the acknowledged principle of behavior. The result is that the average individual breaks the law sooner or later without evening knowing it, much less being aware of it. This is for the most part true in the older states, where ancient laws remain on the statute books for whatever reason. Crime in numerous countries is seen as an action committed in defiance of law for which that country justice system will implement a variety of punishments which will include incarceration, death, a penalty, or removal from office. These criminal activities tend to drift often in and out of the justice system and legal community, their effective shaped by public belief, tradition, or spiritual ideology. If possible, the crime should fit the punishment. However, Get help with your essay from our expert essay writers there are criminal offenses that could be described as harmful, but will not create a severe punishment as others.Crimes are put into two groups. They are called felonies and the other is called misdemeanors and some called violations. Here we must be careful of identifiable difficulties. The reason is that crimes in many states are worded differently. What may be felonies in one state may be a misdemeanors and visa versa. Many times the same offense carries both felony and misdemeanor charges. All of a sudden this seemingly simple question becomes difficult and that caution should be use in using any statements to the fact that crime is increasing or decreasing and that there is no really accurate guide to predict criminal behavior. Crime is often described as an act or commission of a criminal act that is unlawful or forbidden by public law written in statutes and held that those offenders are liable for their actions by punishment prescribed by law. These laws were put into policy to defend and make certain that we will be safe in our society and public lives. However, we still hear of crime happening within our city and state. The safety of the public becomes a concern when crime is committed since particular individuals or groups will be targeted. Although such confrontation should be avoided, many times it cannot. Consequently, public attitude and the criminals socioeconomic status will manipulate the severity of any punishment, just as society varying social attitudes influence the type of criminal activities. Durkheim (1895/1962) argued that crime is an essential characteristic of our social culture and a normal social occurrence that had been in all societies all through our history and that crimes function in the social order as a conduit of defining the confines of tolerable actions, serving as a means for social change by extending and testing those restrictions. Crime: Free Will or Poor Choice When crime is committed again by a criminal, crime rates become affected by socioeconomic and demographic changes such as age, ethnicity, and migration. Economic conditions reflected by joblessness rates, prison and jail capacities, and present law enforcement policies. For the past two decades our society has focus on the norms of the societal order of committing individuals with no understanding what so ever, the realism of life behind bars and the consequences when correctional facilities are not successful in helping those who are incarcerated in prison and for the affected communities that live every day with the consequences. Individuals change and behavior becomes complex when the offender leaves prison and when specific circumstances, like community rejection will reinforce criminogenic needs and behavior leading to criminal activities and eventually crime. More specific, there were some issues regarding the effect of imprisonment on criminals who commit crime again when release (Song Lieb, 1993). This type of social misbehaving is referred to as recidivism. These offenders, who have the likelihood to reoffend and commit crime again when released to the community, generate an important focus to those concerned with public safety in dealing with the cost effectiveness of putting convicted offenders in prison. Recidivism, in a criminal justice perspective, can be defined as the reversion of an individual back to criminal behavior after he or she has been convicted of a prior offense, sentenced, and presumably corrected. Contrary to deterrence theory, offenders who were incarcerated were significantly more likely than those who were put on probation to be arrested and charged with a new offense. The many predictors include cognitive functioning, socioeconomic status and distress factors with any known history of antisocial behavior, social achievement and cultural involvement. Its a combination of factors concerning the consequence of failures, failure of the individual to meet societys expectations and of society to provide for the individual, to a failure of the individual to stay out of trouble, a failure of the individual to be arrest free and disappointment of that individual as an inmate of a correctional institution to take advantage of correctional programs or failure of the institution to provide programs that rehabilitate and perhaps the biggest disappointment continuing in a criminal career after release. One belief is that criminal behavior is a product of cognitive, emotional, and mental deficiency has generated frequent models of offender treatment in the past few decades. In addition, the consequence of imprisonment did not influence the offenders situation concerning conformity. Regardless of the fact if they had weak or strong bonds to our society, drug and those offenders involved with drugs who were incarcerated recidivated more frequently and more rapidly than other types of offenders. Instead of aiding as an effective deterrent for offenders with stronger bonds to society, incarceration may have altered high profile offenders into low profile offenders with little to lose regarding any new arrest. Crime has become a major area of public and political debate, and is often seen as a sign of underlying problems in society related to inequality, social deprivation and social class, age, gender and race. As commonly understood, crime includes many different kinds of activities such as theft, robbery, corruption, assault, fraud, rape and murder. So the simplest way of defining it is to see it as an act or omission prohibited and punished by law. To explain crime, sociologists looked at the strains in the social structure, at the development of deviant or abnormal subcultures and at the process of social change and urban growth. For the past two decades our society has focus on the norms of the societal order of committing individuals with no understanding what so ever, the realism of life behind bars and the consequences when correctional facilities are not successful in helping those who are incarcerated in prison and for the affected communities that live every day with the consequences. This dependence continue to strain the correctional systems of the valuable limited resources of which some could be used to try and focus on rehabilitate, while working together to use treatment first, than use punish and incarceration if not successful (Travis, Solomon Waul, 2001). Another important issue legislators must remember is that correctional facilities administrators need increased resources and funding to sustain the safe operations of prisons and when offenders become eligibility for parole, treatment service to prepare them for release and to stop recidivism or that individual return to crime. Although improving overall financial support will not promise improved treatment programs and service operations, any fundamental reforms must be attempted, other wise it will never be implemented or even tried. For a number of offenders, incarceration and longer detention increase the likelihood of recidivism, while for other offenders recidivism statistics will not make a difference by more incarceration. It is probable that for some offenders, maximizing the length of sentence could minimize recidivism. However, other characteristics such as age, offense type, prior offense, and prior prison term involvement can influence the likelihood to re offend (Wheel er, 1961). Obviously, one has to ask the question what works to reduce recidivism; again, it all depends on where and how one reviews data that is available. Some answers could be found looking at the general and specific data provided regarding correctional treatment. Although major advances have been made in our understanding of offender treatment and evidence for its effectiveness exists, many critics still remain apprehensive regarding efforts to intervene in the lives of offenders. Furthermore, some doubts have developed in the offering of offender treatment, notably cognitive skill training and raise research questions about the client group, the mode of delivery, and the accuracy of the measure. Rational Choice The capability to implement individual self-control is an appropriate aspect in crime causation in situations where an individual considers and deliberates whether or not to participate in committing crime. The majority of citizens in nearly all circumstances, whether or not they participate in acts of crime is not a question of their capability to implement self-control but rather an issue of their moral principles. One individual trait, known as low self-control may be the primary individual characteristic influencing criminal behavior (Gottfredson Hirschi 1990). Low self-control is seen as a summary foundation of individual traits including impulsivity; insensitivity, risk-taking and shortsightedness have an inclination to appear together in the people that are persisting through life. Any individual difference in crime involvement varies in the extent to which individuals are vulnerable to the temptations during that moment. With the rational choice theory the focus of interest starts with the individual, either his or her interest becomes an initial point to look at. Research has shown that various supporters of the rational choice theory may possibly make to some extent, different assumptions concerning the individual and progress into different ways. It starts from the individual then on to larger social groupings and systems, but each begins with the individual as the basic component of this theory. However, it is the individuals who eventually make decision and be concerned completely with his or her own welfare. This direction possibly will be conflicting to those who accept the particular views of Durkheim (1895/1962), concerning social facts as being at the societal level, and in some ways determining individual action through norms and general consciousness. These individuals with are considered to be more susceptible to temptations because they do not consider the negative consequences of their acts (Gottfredson Hirschi, 1990: 95) and consequently are more probable to engage criminal activities. Statutes, codes and s aws are a set of laws, and crimes which violate the law are acts of rule infringement. WikstrA m (2006a) argued that a theory of crime causation may be viewed as a special case of a more general theory of moral rule breaking. Does it matter on whether the action is rational or not. We cannot assume that actions taken by others are irrational while we disagree with them. It may be that this individual taking that course of action believes it is rational. With these intention, rational choice models becomes important since they center on deliberate option between alternatives, in this example, go on with the required treatment program or deviate and risk oneself to commit recidivism then become incarcerated for that deed. Research have constantly revealed that the threat of arrest, rather than harshness of punishment is the most important deterrent and that statistics continue to illustrate a steady increase in documented crime, and many programs that focus on rehabilitation have been unsuccessful in preventing recidivism. On the justification of perceptions, an individual will plan to make a choice, either out of habit or after some deliberation, make a judgment on what to do. When an individual acts out of habit, he/she sees only one effective alternative for action and automatically without deliberation chooses this alternative. When an individual deliberates, he/she considers the moral implications of competing action alternatives and on this basis, makes a rational choice about which action if any to pursue. Familiar settings and circumstances tend to favor automatic choices based upon habit whereas unfamiliar settings or circumstances will tend to favor deliberate choices based on decisions. Because habits have only automated intent with one effective alternative, free will, rational choice, self-control and deterrence will be part of the process of choice, only if an individual deliberates over his/her action alternatives and specifically on the role of deterrence (WikstrA m, 2006 b). Crucially, when making judgment decision, individuals will vary in their ability to exercise self-control as a result of their capabilities. Consequently, the use of Rational Choice Theory must be clearly defined as a prevention and deterrent toward crime rather than punishment. The inquiry now becomes what causes in this sort of behavior. The criminal justice policies tracked throughout the past three decades depended principally on the doctrine of known deterrence theory. Gottfredson Hirschi (1990) hypothesize that each of these perspectives: irresponsible and criminal behavior may be linked by a simple common characteristic: the lack of self control. They disclose that the lack of self-control does not necessitate crime to exist and that self-control can be modified by opportunities and other restrictions (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990). Various tests of Gottfredson and Hirschis theory sustain their calculation relating to self-control and crime, although some conclude that the theory does not illustrate sufficient variation in the affect criminal behavior. Although the absence of self-control do not call for the presence of crime, what is propose instead is the trait of self-control can be changed through a number variables. Deterrence Theory Deterrence theory suggests that crime results from a rational calculation of the costs and benefits of criminal activity. Individuals commit crimes, in other words, when the benefits outweigh the costs. Because an important cost of crime is apprehension and punishment, deterrence theorists suggest that persons will refrain from committing offenses if they perceive that they are certain to be punished, with a severe penalty and soon after the offense has been committed (Spohn, 2007). There are relatively few studies that compare recidivism rates for offenders sentenced to jail or prison with those of offenders given some alternative to incarceration typically probation. Smith and Akers (1993) compared recidivism rates for offenders in a prison diversion program to those for a matched sample of prisoners. They found that the recidivism rates of the two groups were essentially the same, regardless of whether recidivism was defined as a new arrest, a new conviction, a new sentence to jail or prison, or the length of time waiting for rearrest. Durkheim (1895/1962) explains that a weakening in the social structure will change behavior and attitudes, which might cause a person to venture into crime by making bad choices. As a result offenders become younger and involved with different crimes with many involved in major crime. If the problem is with the individual, then the treatment process should begin to modify that persons behavior.   If, however, the cause is with the social structure environment, then that structure should be required to change. If it is a social cause, then perhaps the media has influence on how an individual response by putting emphasis on unrealistic goals (Barkan, 2001). Researchers will always theorize that individuals will use rational judgment and consequently hope that their actions will in turn become a positive process. The central points of this theory is that the human being is a rational actor, rationality involves an end to means calculation, and people freely choose all behavior, both conforming and deviant, based on their rational calculations. The central element of calculation involves a cost benefit analysis: Pleasure versus Pain. Choice, with all other conditions equal, will be directed towards the maximization of individual pleasure. Alternatives restricted in the course of any awareness and understanding of probable retribution will follow an action determined to be in infringement of the social good. The state is responsible for maintaining order and preserving the common good through a system of laws that is the embodiment of the social contract and the quickness and assurance of punishment are the key elements in understanding the ability to control human behavior. There are some researches on deterrence that seems to signify that some crimes are designed to generate economic gains and that certain predatory street crime, correlate strategies for any reduction of criminal or deviant behaviors and activities. Nonetheless, when relating known criminal and deviant actions, crimes of hostility and subculture connect with durable forms of deviance and then the evidence becomes less persuasive. The deterrence theory has several components to try and convince criminals to alter their behavior. In the case of General Deterrence, individuals will participate in criminal actions despite the consequences, whether or not they fear apprehension or not. Our norms, statutes and laws, along with the appropriate enforcement try to enforce the perspective that anti-social and negative behavior will receive punishment. As a result this theory focuses on reducing the prospect of deviance in the general public. With Specific Deterrence, it focus on known individuals who deviate, then tries to keep them from repeating that specific norms or law that have been broken. The problem is what the rationales of this behavior were. However, the use of punishment as a sanction raises the hope that this behavior can be modified. In the majority of modern societies, punishment includes incarceration of that individual. There is information showing that committing crime again among convicted offenders when release from prison can climb as high as 63% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1989). Even when using prison as a deterrence and punishment, it may not alter any future behavior. At the most, it reduces the chances for that individual to engage in other crime. Routine Activity Theory In the field of criminology, Routine activity theory is characterized as a sub theory that was developed Marcus Felson. This perspective states that crime is considered normal and depends on the opportunities that present at the time. If the target of opportunity is present and not protected, crime can take place, if the incentive has value. The basic principle of this theory is that it does not take a criminal to commit it; all it needs is an opportunity. Many crimes are petty theft and may also be called victimless crimes and are unreported to proper authorized personnel. Routine Activity Theory can also be called environmental criminology that was developed by two criminologists, Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson who worked on a crime prevention theory. Their research states that for a crime to happen there must be certain elements present before any crime is committed. Their model used the problem analysis triangle which focuses on three things that should be present and happens at the same time and place. There must a suitable target of opportunity available, there is no protection to prevent crime from taking place and the offender is motivated to commit deviant behavior. This model looks at crime in the offenders outlook. That individual will commit the crime if that target is appropriate and a capable protector is not present. It is the evaluation of circumstances that dictates whether a crime will happen. Another hypothesis is called the Crime Prevention Theory, was introduced by Clarke (1995, 1997), focuses on reducing available favorable crime opportunities and instead, focus on certain characteristics of criminals. Like the Rational choice theory it proposes to increase the related risks and difficulties, and reduce the rewards. It states that crime is often committed through an attractive opportunity. If thats individuals everyday routines expose that person to a stimulus for any specified time frame, the more of that consequence will be linked to that individual. Patterns in criminal activity are reflected through a concentration of opportunities for crime areas. Clarke (1995, 1997) combines the Crime Prevention Theory to Rational Choice Theory through his recommended assortment of opportunity reduction procedures. Its objective and goal was to increase the physical effort needed to execute a crime, increase the expected consequences of capture and diminish any anticipated profits of a crime and displace the excuses for conformity with the authorities (Clarke, 1997). When reviewing research data regarding the routine activity theory, the risk embraces three fundamental variables: the degree of exposure from the intended victim to the offending criminal, any environmental obstacle that will diminish the prospect for crime, and deterrent traits of the intended victim. Research has shown that Routine activity theory is frequently in studies of regarding victimization, where demographic variables vary. Brunet (2002) discuss more current research to merge and use an theoretical integration with other theories like rational choice (Clarke Felson 1993), situational crime prevention (Clark 1997) and social disorganization (Miethe Meier 1994) in developing a better explanation. Crime is not pretty. It is routine and takes place all the time. Another peerspective is that crime is somewhat unaltered by social problems. Cohen Felson (1979) endorsed and supported the assumption that because the wealth of modern society offers vast and favorable circumstances of opportunities to commit crime, the temptation is often irresistible to control. Summary The consequence of crime may possibly be traced to social and economic tribulations. Many individuals are jobless, still more are unable to fine work, and many are homeless, ill and indigent. For many of these individuals, crime becomes a tempting and quick way to acquire money. When left with these choices, many will turn to criminal activities and behavior. If these behaviors are left unpunished, the misconception is that crime pays, reinforcing criminal behavior and discouraging good behavior. How do we eradicate crime, there are numerous proposal put forward. But with greed, inadequate oversight of laws, poverty and homelessness, with poverty, drugs and racial disarray the task in can be overwhelming. Consequently, numerous of the uneducated currently find themselves without a job, existing in sub-standard accommodation in impoverished surroundings. The result is that now money becomes insufficient to support them, influencing these individuals to engage in criminal activities and end up committing crimes. Conclusion The boundary of crime in any community develops into various structures, which often influence offenders. Research has shown that crime rates are affected by socioeconomic and demographic changes such as age, ethnicity, and migration. Economic conditions reflected by various policies. Various definition of deviant behavior sees crime that violates established norms, in particular, cultural standards of principles dictating how humans should behave. This approach considers the multifaceted realities surrounding the totality and concept of crime to understand how changing social, political, psychological, and economic conditions affect the definitions of crime and the response of legal, law enforcement, and correctional actions taken by the State. As culture changes and the political environment shifts, behaviors may be criminalized or decriminalized influence by the general public. Reference: Brunet, J (2002).Discouragement of crime: An application of a reformulated routine activities theory. Western Criminology Review. Clarke, R (Ed.). (1979). Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Second Edition. New York: Harrow and Heston. Clarke, R. V. M.Felson (Eds)(1993). Routine Activity Theory and Rational Choice Theory. Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol 5. Cohen, L, Felson, M (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A Routine Activity path. American Sociological Review. 44, 588-608. Barkan, S. E. (2001). Criminology: A sociological understanding. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0130896438. Durkheim, Emile. (1895/1962). The Rules of Sociological Method. New York: Free Press. Gottfredson, Michael and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press. Hepburn, John R. (2005). Recidivism amid drug offenders after contact to treatment. Criminal Justice Review. 16, 237-259. Spohn, Casssia. (2007). The Deterrent Effect. Criminal Justice Policy Review. 18, 31-50. Song, L. Lieb, R. (1993). Recidivism: The effects of incarceration. Retrieved August 10, 2007 from http://www.wsipp,wa.agov/rptfiles.IncarcRecid.pdf Miethe, T, Meier, R (1994). Toward an integrated theory of offenders, victims, and situations. State University of New York Press. Travis, J., Solomon, A.J., and Waul, M. 2001. From Prison to Home: The Measurements and Results for Prisoner Return and Reentry. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. NCJ 190429. Retrieved September 7, 2007 from http://www.reentry.gov/publications/reentry.html Wheeler, S. (1961). Socialization in Correctional Communities. American Sociological Review. 26: pp. 697-712.

Magical and Realist Elements of Like Water for Chocolate by Laura Esqui

Magical and Realist Elements of Like Water for Chocolate The novel Like Water for Chocolate, published in 1989, was written by Laura Esquivel who is of Spanish heritage. She lives in Mexico, and Like Water for Chocolate was her first novel. I feel that in the story Laura Esquivel gives a lot of magical elements as well as some realist elements in order to evoke emotions about love. While reading Like Water for Chocolate, I thought that how the girl named Tita was not allowed to marry the guy she loved and how she had to watch her sister marry him was interesting. However, I thought that the element was somewhat magical when she was making her sister Rosaura's wedding cake, and at the same time, she was thinking of Pedro whom she is in love with and he is now marrying her sister. As she was thinking of him, she began to cry. As she was crying, a tear drop went into the cake, and they were afraid that it messed up the meringue. I have not baked much, especially using meringue, but I felt that part was a little magical to me. On the other hand, I found the fact real that a person can be in love with somebody else while he or she is getting married. However, I am not sure if there are people out there who marry somebody just so they can be closer to their family member. The fact that her mom did not want Tita to get married was real because people can and do sometimes get upset when they do not want their child getting married. She showed a lot of emotions. Also, preparing for the wedding was a realist element. Many things appeared to be real. One does argue with family members, and daily events happened. Doing chores and cooking are obviously realist elements. However, many realist elements are brought up. Havi... ...on will see magical as well as realistic elements. If one is interested in Like Water for Chocolate, there are many websites he or she can go to. There is plenty of information on Like Water for Chocolate. Works Cited Chanady, Amaryll. "The Territorialization of the Imaginary in Latin America: Self-Affirmation and Resistance to Metropolitan Pilgrims." Magical Realism. Theory, History, Community. Ed Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durkham, N. C: Duke UP, 1995: 125-141 Esquivel, Laura. Like Water for Chocolate. New York: Doubleday, 1989. Love and Other Illegal Facts. Esquivel, Laura. October 1996. 19 Jan 2001. http://www.salon.com/oct96/interview961104.html Smith, Joan. Laura Esquivel on "Like Water for Chocolate," destiny and the thoughts of inanimate objects. The Interview Love and Other Illegal Acts. October 1996. 19 Jan 2001

Red Badge of Courage :: essays research papers

REVIEW 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discuss the novel as a psychological journey. Discuss how Henry Changes throughout the novel. What causes him to change? Henry Fleming is a young solider fighting for the union army during the civil war. Throughout the war Henry ventures on a long psychological journey to discover himself. Often referred to as â€Å"the youth† Henry comes into battle with the naà ¯ve fantasies of being a war hero with out ever having faced a single battle, making him extremely self centered and vein. His desires to be heroic are far from noble but are based solely on the desire to be accepted and admired by men. He is motivated only by the idea of being immortalized among men and really holds no sense of right and wrong. Many times he justifies his coward ness by saying that the other men are not â€Å"wise enough to save themselves from the flurry of death.† And somehow restores his own self pride. He convinces himself every time that his lies are truth. But mid way through the novel Henry finally faces battle and the turning point of the novel occurs, because Henry fights, he no longer cares about himself but is part of the bigger picture he is a vital part of the â€Å"fighting machine†. As Henry forgets about the immature fantasies of a reputation he begins to earn one and quite a good one. Many of the officers are even offering their compliments and praise. Henry’s character comes full circle when he let go of his earlier mistakes and abandons the hope of a great heroism and trades it all for the more gratifying understanding of what it is to be a man. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discuss the religious imagery in the novel. How does Crane’s background influence his opinon What point is he making? The is tons of religious imagery. The most obvious is Jim being portrayed as Jesus Christ his initials are even JC and in his death he even depicts him with the â€Å"piercing† on his side and his blood covered hands. Crane was probably most influenced by his father who was a Methodist minister. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How is the novel an example of Realism? Give specific ezamples that show the novel as a realistic novel. What descriptions of battle make the novel realistic? By definition realism is, â€Å"understanding of nature of real life: a practical understanding and acceptance of the actual nature of the world, rather than an idealized or romantic view of it†.

An Overview of Euripides’ Electra :: Euripides Electra Essays

An Overview of Electra Euripides' play Electra, produced in 415 b.c.e., starts with a peasant recounting past events: Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus murdered Agamemnon and took the throne of Mycenae. Agamemnon's son Orestes escaped and has been raised in Phocis. Daughter Electra, when marriageable, was forced to wed this peasant instead of any noble, whereby Aegisthus' rule might be endangered. The marriage has not been consummated. "If any man thinks me a fool, for harbouring / A young girl in my house and never touching her, / He measures what's right by the wretched standard of / His own mind" (107). Electra doesn't mind toiling so long as she can grouse about her mother. Orestes and his friend Pylades arrive. Orestes has been sent by Apollo's oracle to avenge his father's murder. He and Electra, who doesn't recognize him, exchange stories, Electra revealing that Aegisthus "when he's drunk, so people say, / Jumps on the grave, or flings stones at my father's name / Inscribed there" (116) and acts paranoid about Orestes. With the help of an old one-time servant to Agamemnon and a convenient scar, Orestes identity is revealed to Electra. The siblings conspire. Orestes pretends to join Aegisthus in an animal sacrifice but murders the usurper and wins over the king's guards to his side. He parades the severed head to Electra, who is elated but not sated. Orestes balks at the idea of killing Clytemnestra, their mother. Electra sends word that she has given birth. Clytemnestra visits and does a rather convincing job of explaining her side to all the famous events, particularly her wrath at Agamemnon for tricking their daughter Iphigenia to her sacrificial death before the Trojan War. She was also less than pleased that Agamemnon brought back Cassandra as his new slave toy. The Chorus is characteristically idiotic: "Your words are just; yet in your 'justice' there remains / Something repellent. A wife ought in all things to accept / Her husband's judgement, if she is wise. Those who will not / Admit this, fall outside my scope of argument" (141). Electra aligns Clytemnestra with her sister Helen. She accuses her mother of primping before the mi rror long before Agamemnon's crimes, obviously for someone else. And Electra claims Clytemnestra's rationalizations do not address the persecution of Orestes and herself. Clytemnestra accepts that Electra favors her father, but as to this business of the new baby?

GM crops Essay

For thousands of years farmers have used a process of selection and cross breeding to improve the quality of our crops. The problem with GM crops is that there is little known about what effect they will have in 20 years’ time. The genetic structure of any living organism is complex and GM crop tests focus on short-term effects. Not all the effects of introducing a foreign gene into the intricate genetic structure of an organism are tested. Will the pests that a crop was created to resist eventually become resistant to this crop? GM crops may also pose a health risk to native animals that eat them. The animals may be poisoned by the built-in pesticides. Tests in the U. S. showed that 44% of caterpillars of the monarch butterfly died when fed large amounts of pollen from GM corn. Very little scientific information exists about the risk of GM food on human health. One major report by Dr. Arpad Pusztai, explains how GM foods could trigger new allergies and contain toxins that may be harmful. Another concern is disease. Since some crops are modified using the DNA from viruses and bacteria, will we see new diseases emerge? What about the GM crops that have antibiotic-resistant marker genes? Marker genes are used by scientists to determine whether their genetic modification of a plant was successful. Will these antibiotic-resistant genes be transferred to microorganisms that cause disease? We already have a problem with ineffective antibiotics. How can we develop new drugs to fight these new bugs? Then there is always the possibility that we may not be able to destroy GM crops once they spread into the environment. Proponents of GM crops claim that advantages may be many, such as: Improved storage and nutritional quality Pest and disease resistance Selective herbicide tolerance Tolerance of water, temperature and saline extremes Improved animal welfare Higher yields and quality Cross-pollination is a concern for both GM crops and conventional breeding, especially with the more serious weeds that are closely related to the crops. With careful management this may be avoided. They are an ever-increasing problem and genetic engineering promises to stop it. But will genes from GM plants spread to other plants, creating superweeds and superbugs we won’t be able to control? When looking at the environmental impacts of grass- and grain-fed beef, â€Å"there is a 500% increase in greenhouse gas emissions for each pound of beef produced from grass-fed compared to grain-fed cattle. Uncontrolled nitrogen and phosphate release to the environment, 35% more water use, and 30% more land use for grass-fed cattle compared to grain-fed increases the environmental impact of strictly grass feeding. † Cholesterol content does not differ between grass- or grain-fed beef. Today, there is an estimated two-thirds of all our products in supermarkets contain genetically engineered ingredients, including; tortilla chips, drink mixes, taco shells, veggie burgers, muffin mix, and baby formulas. But only one-third of Americans are aware that their food contain genetically engineered ingredients, despite the findings of surveys that 85 to 90% of consumers want clear labeling of all genetically engineered foods. Because labeling is not yet required by government regulations, nor practiced by biotech companies, there is absolutely no way for consumers to know what it is that they are eating. The public has not been educated of the inadequacy of genetically modified ingredients in their diets and the possible risks that these foods may entail. The credibility of these geneticists is also questionable because almost all established molecular geneticists have some industrial ties limiting what they can research on, particularly with regard to safety. There is no way of knowing the overall, long-term effects of genetically engineered foods on human health. This unpredictability appears to be causing the most controversy over genetically modified foods, as there is insufficient evidence and need for further research. The effect of the insertion on the biochemistry of the host organism is unknown. The effect of the genetically engineered organism on the environment is unknown. The effect of eating genetically engineered foods is unknown. There is no basis for meaningful risk assessment. There is no recovery plan in case of disaster. It is not even clear, who, if anyone will be legally liable for the negative consequences. There are no consequences among scientists on the safety or on the risks associated with genetic engineering in agriculture. The international community is deeply divided on the issue. In addition to these, genetically engineered foods may cause the removal of important food elements. For example, genetic engineers may intentionally remove or inactivate a substance they consider undesirable in a food, which may have unknown but crucial qualities, such as cancer-inhibiting abilities. Examples such as this are perhaps especially frightening because of the potential to find cures to some of the illnesses and diseases that have already laid claim to many lives. Failure to do further research in this case would be a shame, as it could lead to an elimination of possible breakthroughs in medicine and health. The current state of biotechnology must be fixed because every living organism is affected by it because everything is composed of genes. If the food being consumed contains products of genetic modification, the public is at risk to the unpredictable effects on their own physiology and biochemistry-effects that may not be reversible. Not only could this cause problems in their own lives presently, but it could also affect future generations, in ways that are unforeseen yet preventable. Moreover there is not enough understanding of the principles of genetic engineering to categorize those genetic modifications that may pose a risk and those that may not because genes appear to react in diverse ways when spliced with other genes. Genes are a part of an extremely complex and interconnected network and are constantly reacting to their environment. Further research must be enacted, and biotech companies and the government must do their moral/ethical duty to inform the public, because ultimately, they are the ones making the decisions.

Emo Culture

In today’s society there are many different subculture tendencies amongst young people, they are various and interpenetrating, but to the bigger part of them is leading the element music and above all such kind of music, that is with a history of many years, transformed in classic for many generations. But recently one very different from the entire subcultures tendencies phenomenon, called emo style, especially strongly caused a sensation. It is different not only at the way of clothing, at the type of music preferences, at the type of behavior, but it is different at the way, it understands the world and itself. It is one â€Å"sad† subculture to a great degree namely because of the way, it perceives the ambient reality. The emo subculture is a combination from the punk rock and the hardcore tendencies. From etymological point of view the name emocore comes from emotional hardcore and its roots are in Washington in the middle of 80s. For founders of the emocore tendency could be shown Rites of Spring, Embrace and Rain. Gradually with the notion emocore they start to define themselves hardcore punk bands, which start to add melodic elements to their songs. The sadness, the love, the sense of guilt is the basic topic in the lyrics of the emocore. The emo style could be qualified as „rock music with emotional-lyric elements†. But this couldn’t be a final definition, because the debates about the definition of the emo subculture still continue. The emo culture continues to develop and in 90s till today it continues to be popular for the young people. A whole teenage generation succeeds the name emo and the young people start to call themselves emos. The melodramatic behavior and clothes introduce a new taste to the music. This subculture is maybe one of the most popular and the most obsessing the mind of young people today. At first considered as a music genre, the emocore today is a subculture phenomenon that unifies music, behavior, fashion, style and way of life. The values, expressed through the music, consist in emotional topics, often associated with the despair, the nostalgia, the broken heart, the hope and the self hatred. Emo-tional fashion†¦ Interesting and contradictory is the fashion of the emo representatives. Staggering hair styles, combined with sport clothing, with many accessories and a strong make-up – these are the most distinctive characteristics of the emo fashion that has its varieties and modifications. One of the most important signs, characterizing the emo subculture is the way of forming of the hair. The emo hair styles are unisex – they are suitable as for girls, as for boys. Usually the emo hair cut is short, colored in black or at the worst in dark red. Every day to the emo maniac are necessary tons of gel, to make his hair cut in the possible most cult way. A typical particularity of the emo hair style is the bang. It is maybe the longest element of the emo hair that is put closely over the one eye, as in this way it covers almost the half of the face. Usually it is straighten with the help of a press and it is fixed with gel or wax. The hair at the back is disheveled, again fixed with different styling products. In the virtual space every one emo candidate could find precise advises in his search how to be emo. It exist many movies that explain by visual methods how to be made the hair style at home, what kind of hairstyling products to be used etc. To make a real emo hair cut it is not necessary the intervention of a hair stylist – it is necessary a little bit imagination and the help of one good friend. Other, also very interesting for examination element from the image of the emo representative is the clothing. Tight jeans and t-shirts, with printed name of the favorite emocore band, skate sneakers, many-colored stockings, a great variety of accessories, badges, bracelets – these and many others interesting attributes characterize the image of the emo-tional young person. As a whole the emos don’t give a great amount of money for clothes, they tend even to make the clothes, that they will wear, by hand – one more sign of their irregularity. The emos aren’t slaves of some brand, those sneakers they have to possess at any price. Bracelets, belts with caps, hats – all these accessories are various and multicolored and they contradict to the tortured and lacerated soul of the emo representative. Also very significant accessory is the ring, piercing the lower lip of the young subculture person. The emo-tional nature of the subculture youth†¦ At their nature the emo representatives are extremely sensitive characters. The psychologists define them as introverts, who don’t want to communicate with the ambient world. Because of that they find a field of manifestation in the poetry. The poems that they write are dark, dispiriting, depressive and they inspire sadness and nostalgia. In this respect they to a great degree resemble to the Goths. The life and the pain are basic topics in the poetry of the young creators. The specialists advise the parents to pay more attention to their subculture person at home, because namely this way of living of the young people leads to things, for those I’ll speak down below in the text and that are incorrigible In fact this type young people, as all the rest, need love and seek it all the time. Just in the process of this search they fall into the dark bottom of their souls and they suffer desperately. They suffer, they cry and they listen to their favorite emocore bands – the only ones that understand them. For all these emotions, characteristic for the emos, it is especially important the moment with the age. Usually the emo maniacs are between 12- and 18-years-old, when they are especially emotionally and psychically unstable and namely this tendency is the vent for the most young emo adherents. When we add to this the factor „family problems† the receipt is perfectly made and the real emocore representative is ready. Many stereotypes exist for the emo subculture like for the other subcultures. For example could serve the suicides, the vampire character of the preaching by them ideas and many others. Of course, there are young people, who take destructive for them decisions, but we can’t say, that all of them take the same decisions. On the contrary – this is one very interesting, to some degree new and unexplored subculture tendency that we don’t have to ignore, but to try to understand. Except the music and the poetry it exist one more place, where the emo representatives feel good. This is MySpace – in this community they can really find followers in the ramblings of their minds. The dangerous emo subculture†¦ The emo subculture got very popular in the last years with some negative events that had shaken the parents and the society. It is found to be that the values and the beliefs that he emo culture preaches are extremely dangerous the most for the health and for the life of the young people. But here it is not about alcohol and cigarett?s, but for something more dangerous and frightening, called suicide. The emo communities decide their problems as they commit suicide by rituals. Even in Bulgaria these tragic events are a fact, to which we become witnesses „thanks† to the media. Before some months two 14-year-old girls horrified the society, cutting ritually their veins. The motto that they believed in was „The kitchen, the knife, the veins, end of the problems! † And this is not the only case. In the virtual space the information for such tragic events flows. The emos believed, that after their death they will be regenerated and they will go to a better world. Many sites and bloggs for the emo culture use quite scaring backgrounds that couldn’t be passed so easily by psychologists and other specialists in this area. Animated sites flow where for background are used children with gun points at their temples, broken hearts and blood. This is one more sign, that is evidence about the dangerous philosophy of the emocore representatives – and namely the suicide. In the media are often found articles with alarming headings and shocking photo material, that have for purpose to wake the sleeping social and parent conscience and to tell how suffer their children and how much they need the parent’s love. However namely because of the creation of negative aura around the topic emo subculture it start to be published materials, examining the emo subculture like every one normal youth subculture with its moment character and sensibility, with its transience and colorfulness, with its poetics and many-siding. The emo subculture – dangerous or saving life†¦ After all this, now in front of us is standing the question to what degree to scare from this tendency, to what degree the children have to be protected and how to be transformed the negativism in this tendency in positivism. The emo culture is extremely excite, many-facing and various. But there exist deep-seated negative directions of thinking, that the young person have to bear in mind and not to be amenable to them. Every one teenager has the right to be such as he wants to be, independently to what subcuture tendency he is an adherent. The important is to be happy of what he is, of the life he lives and of what he believes in. The young person should believe in good, in beautiful and in positive. The emo subculture is also such kind of subculture. Let young people achieve to get only its good things†¦

Every child is special Essay

Every child is special. Every child has its own personality. Every child tries to endeavor and focus best in its life. Primarily, every child has its own dreams. But the main factor to ponder is, for us to understand his/her dreams. And the truth is, we lack stability, patience and understanding as far as the child is concern. The movie, Every Child Is Special, was about a certain child named Ishaan Awasthi. Ishaan was a talented child; he can think outside the box and paint with such passion and creativity. But he was not understood by his teachers, he was only thought of as a mischievous and a very naughty boy. He was often called an â€Å"idiot, duffer, lazy and crazy†, even his parents didn’t understand him. They only thought that the boy was misbehaving because he did not want to go to school. It is perhaps the structure and restrictions of the normal expectations of the school system that rub him the wrong way, because one day, after having been punished by being sent by the teacher to stand in the hallway, he goes AWOL and wanders the streets, savoring the exciting sights of tourist-film India. He appears to be somewhat hyperactive. If his parents attempted to have him tested, it may be that he never sat still long enough to get a diagnosis. After finding out that Ishaan will be kicked out of school after the school year, his parents decided to send him to a boarding school where Ishaan suffered more from his strict teachers. These incidents crushed Ishaan’s confidence in him and he became depressed, very depressed. He did not speak to anyone, not even to his mother or his brother. No one would even try to help him because they did not try to understand him. Luckily he met Ram Shankar Nikumbh, the temporary art teacher, saw himself in Ishaan, he stayed persistent to help Ishaan in his studies and his life. Through his unconventional teaching methods and graceful presence, Ishaan’s attention was caught up. Ram did everything to understand Ishaan’s problem in reading and writing, he consulted Ishaan’s parents and told them that Ishaan has dyslexia, wherein he finds it hard to recognize letters and numbers. I love where he tells Ishaan’s father that in the Solomon Islands, villagers don’t chop down a tree when they want to clear land, but curse and hurl abuses at it, and the tree withers and dies soon after. Ram helped Ishaan in every way, first he gave Ishaan a confidence boost so that he will not be afraid to express  himself, and then, he also gave Ishaan lessons in writing, reading and in math. Ram taught Ishaan using different methods, he made learning fun by applying games to his lessons. Gradually, Ishaan begun to improve in his studies, he has now little trouble in reading, he can right properly and can solve math problems. Teaching should not only be done in one way, we should use different ways to teach our students because each and every one of us has a unique and special talent. It is also good to understand the needs of our students, let them be free – free to imagine, free to learn in their own special way. Listen to your students opinions and learn from it. Somehow the movie touched in an exceptional way and it broke my heart seeing that the dear people that child thought would understand him were the very ones who judged him and failed to understand his problem. But I cannot really judge the parents though, all they wanted was the best for their child that is why they tried so hard to push him and discipline him at the same time. It tug the heartstrings and at the same time gives hope that having dyslexia is not a desperate and in hopeless situation. To help the students, family support, teacher’s patience and love is needed, so with the interesting and enjoyable teaching and learning strategies should be employed. The theory of multiple intelligences in education plays an important role here and that can be a vessel in informing the teachers and most importantly the parents for them to assist their children. With time, patience and care, he ultimately helps Ishaan find himself and the harsh father realized his child’s wo rth and needs.

I Believe in Happiness Essay

We’re often told that happiness is an illusion, and some of us believe it, despite the experience of our own life. Happiness is obviously not an illusion, because we’ve all felt it, not once but many times. Without a doubt, every person has ever experienced some kind of unhappiness. This is a very sad feeling. We always feel unhappy when we get sad news, or experience sad situations. I believe that if there was only happiness in this world, then all our worries and tears would be washed away. There would be no miseries, no suicides and no getting involved with drugs. I always try my best to be happy on all occasions, no matter which pain I experience. Whether the pain is emotional or physical, I believe was that happiness is the key and answer. There are many ways in which an individual could gain happiness. Personally, I find happiness in helping other people or trying to resolve any problem if is my possibility. Strange as it may seem, this is the truth. I came to know this when I was 14 years old. I believe in happiness, when you make others happy, when you help them to do things happen, your soul will become happy. I believe in happiness when you see others laugh, you feel satisfaction with yourself, you felt good. There is no cause for anyone to be sad all the time; everyone should have something to turn to in their time of need. Happiness is what I believe makes the hard obstacles seem a little softer at the time of impact. Most commonly, we realize after some period of time, a few minutes, or a day, that we have been happy in the time just past. We haven’t thought about it one way or another, but now that we do, we realize we’ve been happy. That’s why I believe in happiness, That happiness occurs when we’re not paying attention to is as part of why happiness seems so mysterious. We know a lot about what doesn’t make you happy. As a rule, nothing you lack now will make you happy when you get it. Similarly, buying things doesn’t make anyone happy, I believe that money doesn’t make you happy enough than no material things. The endless disappointment of shoppers, thronging to the stores to acquire the new clothes of the season, the new car of the year model, is repeated again and again. We make our purchase, and feel happy for a while. But soon the happiness fades. I believe that money does not always buy happiness, but it is not indicated that money cannot brings satisfaction. It is of great importance to deal with money more carefully and appropriately. I believe in happiness, the feeling that we can create everyday and without money, if you help other, if you make a difference you will continue patters for a better life and for a better future.

Anthropology of Tattoos

He repeated this several times as a ceremonial pot was filled with gathering soot from the burning fire. After the artist finished his tedious design, he rubbed soot from the pot bottom deep into the slits, planting the bacteria that would infect the skin, raising the scars into their meaningful design. She felt accomplished that she withstood the agonizing pain while other members of her clan could not. Her newly inherited body art signified the birth of her first son, and left her with a renewed sense of beauty. This is the way of life common to people indigenous to the motherland of Africa. Scarification, however, is not the only form of body art that is used. Body painting, tattooing, and branding are all similar forms of body art, which can be found in Africa and other cultures throughout the world. The word â€Å"tattoo† comes from the Tahitian word â€Å"tattau†, which means â€Å"to mark†. Tattoos have evolved from being symbols of punishment that were given to identify criminals and slaves in the early ninth-century Chinese culture, into a pop-culture trend of using he skin as â€Å"a way of describing the exotic uncivilized other† within ourselves (Schildkrout 2004:324). For centuries, the body has been used as a â€Å"visible way of defining individual identity and cultural difference† (Schildkrout 2004:319). This cultural difference becomes apparent when studying the evolution of body art over time, especially when focusing on the differences between the Western and Non-Western cultures. People have been adorning their body with tattoos and piercing for centuries, but until recently, the thought of tattoos in ancient Egypt had been pushed aside. It has now been discovered that, without a doubt, tattoos did exist in that time period. Although miniscule, a group of enormously important tattooed mummies serve to help prove this point (Bianchi 1988:21). The first mummy to be discovered was one f a woman named Amunet, whose mummy was found in an excellent state of preservation, â€Å"most likely due to the fact that she served as a priestess of the goddess Harthor at Thebes during Dynasty XI†(Bianchi 1988:22). The tattoos on her body were comprised of a pattern of dots and dashes in an elliptical shape on her lower abdomen. The thighs and arms adorned the identical parallel lines of the aforementioned pattern. Two more women mummies, who were discovered and believed to be from the same time period, also had similar tattoos on their lower abdomen (Bianchi 1988:22). This group of woman represents an exclusive group of Egyptians who received tattoos in that time period, because there is no other evidence that shows tattoos to be a part of the Egyptian culture until the time of the Middle Kingdom. These abstract patterns associated with ritualistic tattooing survived into the New Kingdom. The Egyptians, more then likely, borrowed a form of tattooing from the Nubian civilization. Unlike the Nubians, whose purpose for tattooing is unknown, â€Å"the Egyptians appear to have regarded the tattoo as one of several vehicles by which the procreative powers of the deceased could be revived† (Bianchi 1988:27). Substantiation proposes that only women were associated with the decorating of their bodies and the ritualistic activities that went along with it. The art of tattooing began with the grouping of bluish or black dots and/or dashes forming abstract geometric patterns; that system of body art lasted for over two thousand years in ancient Egypt. Just like other ideas and goods, the idea of tattooing began to travel to several different societies, and has evolved into extremely different forms of art all over the world. In northeastern Zambia, the Tabwa â€Å"once covered themselves from head to foot with scarification† (Roberts 1988:41). The women of the Tabwa began receiving elaborate marks on their face, chest, and backs when they were young girls; it sometimes was continued at other points in a woman’s life (Roberts 1988:43) such as courting rituals and for woman wishing to bear a child. Male sculptors would trace designs and make incisions on the lesser intimate parts of the body; they left the rest for the women to do. ‘Tabwa women used razors to slit skin [that had been] plucked up with a fishhook or arrowhead. These incisions were then rubbed with soot from a pot bottom, an irritant that produced the desired raised cicatrices† (Roberts 1988:44). There were several reasons that this tradition was done, different to every age and gender in the tribe. Young women went through this process in order to achieve a state of perfection, which was required for those wanting to marry and have children (Roberts 1988:45). Scarification is a form of body art that was used in several tribes because according to their customs â€Å"beauty is not physically innate, but rather a function of the girl’s inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:45). Not only the Tabwa, scarification was used in such tribes as the Ga’anda and the Tiv; all the tribes have distinctly different purposes for doing this, but the process and effect of the body are the same. Another form of body art is body painting, which the people of the Southeast Nuba begin at a young age; but the meanings, and time frame from when they begin decorating the body are very different between males and females. The males paint themselves from the ages of 12 to 27 (Faris 1988:31). Typically, they only paint during the down time after the harvest season and before the next years planting begins. This is the time that the males are less involved in mandatory and productive activities; they spend their supplementary time with festive activities such as dance and sport participation. The restrictions placed on the men by their age, most importantly deal with the color that they use on their body—for example â€Å" only the older age groups are eligible to use the greatest elaboration in color, including the deep black and yellow [colors, that are] prohibited to younger grades†(Faris 1988:32). The change in elaboration allowed on the body does not coincide with any physiological changes, rather, it corresponds with changes â€Å"in productive status or sport† (Faris 1988:32). As they move up in grades from young laborers that answer to the elders, to mature men that own their own property, farm and family, their elaborate painting ability increases. The elders though, do not decorate their bodies; rather, they delegate and lead rituals for the younger men and enforce the rules of allowed color use. Therefore, the male body painting shows their progression thru ones life stages. The women of Southeast Nuba, â€Å"from the age of six years, until consummation of marriage, oil and ochre [their bodies] daily, in colors [that are] appropriate to their patri-clan section† (Faris 1988:34). After childbirth, they may continue to wear some oil and ochre on their shoulders. The personal body art of women is strictly related to the physiological changes that occur as a women goes through life, and are fixed around body scarification as a way of showing her changes. A woman’s scarification is so important, that â€Å"if a husband refuses to pay for a scarring specialist, a woman may seek a lover who will do so, and her first marriage will end† (Faris 1988:35). Unlike the males elaborate body art, a woman’s body art is simple, but it accumulates over her life-span and is very standardized, while a male’s body art is constantly changing. Body painting, tattooing and scarification thus far had been tools used by individuals to beautify their body and elevate their status within their tribe; this is not the case with all societies. In several other cultures, tattoos have been used in a form of branding, which is quite the opposite. Though tattooing and branding are â€Å"similar in that both involve the insertion of pigments under the skin to create permanent marks†, branding is implemented in order to lower an individuals status, to punish for crimes committed, to identify slaves, but most importantly, to eliminate personal identity (Schildkrout 2004:323). â€Å"The immutable alteration of human skin by branding needs to be considered in relation to, but ought not be confused with, tattooing† (Bianchi 1988:27). Two recent studies originating in South Africa elaborate on this subject, reporting on the political influence of tattooing â€Å"as a means of social control† (Schildkrout 2004:330). They site examples from Zambia in which a medical practitioner travels around to villages â€Å"in which witch craft accusations have been common†¦to inoculate people against people against witch craft† (Schildkrout 2004:331). The villagers would â€Å"submit to bodily inspections†, they were then treated â€Å"by getting numbers tattooed on their arms† (Schildkrout 2004:331). This is disturbingly reminiscent of Nazi concentration camps when an unfathomable number of Jewish people lost their personal identities and became known as only a number in the system to be disposed of. This â€Å"symbolic denial of personhood† served as a system â€Å"of control and surveillance† (Schildkrout 2004:323). This system of control was also imposed by â€Å"authoritarian regimes† in Southeast Asia (Schildkrout 2004:323). The Zhou and Ming Dynasties branded criminals as a form of punishment with â€Å"extensive, often full-body tattoos, with elaborate pictorial imagery as well as written inscriptions† (Schildkrout 2004:324) portraying their crime. This form of tattooing is definitely contrary to traditional methods. Similarly in Brazil, branding was used to mark convicts by the penal authorities. Penal tattoos derived their power from subjugation of the marked convicts. The humiliation of being visibly branded was a significant component of the convict’s punishment. In an act of resistance, those that had been branded â€Å"were known to reclaim their bodies by writing over the inscriptions or by displaying them in new social situations† (Schildkrout 2004:324). The branded, therefore, became the empowered, restoring the function of the tattoo to being personally-motivated. This personal motivation is perhaps most notable in Western cultures, specifically North America. In America, the Native Americans used body painting in many ways, usually connected with ethnic identity, social roles or marital status (Rubin 1988:179). The Natives also used the body as a canvas in ritualistic ceremonies, on warriors going into battle and for the beautification of their women. When the Europeans discovered America, they brought with them slaves from Africa and they introduced branding of the slaves into the American culture. After the civil war, when the slaves had been freed, branding was still embedded in American culture through groups of people including gang members and convicts. Though â€Å"branding is often associated with involuntary marking and the denial of personhood†, it has also â€Å"been adopted in contemporary Western body culture as an assertion of group identity, for example in college fraternities† (Schildkrout 2004:323). Tattoos were also prevalent in other parts of America, including Alaska. Among the Eskimos â€Å"[t]he function of these art forms [was] – essentially manifesting one’s place or role within the hierarchy of hunting life† (Gritton 1988:190). With the introduction and adaptation of the western civilization in Alaskan culture, â€Å"the marks of a hunter or hunter’s wife served no purpose in their new lives and were understandably abandoned† (Gritton 1988:190). The function of body art and tattooing has been Americanized, evolving from its native origins to incorporate self expression. This self expression has mushroomed from a manor of identifying oneself to a way of gaining attention through shock value. Though ever-changing, all forms of body art mentioned play enormous roles in the lives of people. Certain non-Western cultures are based around the ability to use skin as a visible way of defining status or bettering their self-image, in order to attract companions. So the artists who are allowed to perform the act of adorning bodies with different designs are regarded as having a very important place in the society. They are â€Å"scarring specialist† (Faris 1988:35), â€Å"body artists† (Drewal 1988:84), but most importantly, they are known as â€Å"[the] one-who-creates- art† (Drewal 1988:84). In the non-Native American culture, however, the general attitude towards tattoo artist in present-day American culture is less than appreciative. Extreme critics even characterize tattooist as opportunist, exclusively seeking monetary gain (Sanders 1988:229). â€Å"The tattooist interest in artistry and control is often in conflict with his profit orientation†, revealing the major flaw within the American society (Sanders 1988:229). This is the major difference in western and non-western cultures. Body tattoos in western society are an object to be purchased. Americans obtain tattoos in the same manner that they acquire a new Louis Vuitton handbag. They purchase them as accessories, which is in stark contrast to the non-western cultures, who acquire tattoos as an essential ritual in their society. With this is mind, the process in which American’s purchases body art seems slightly ridiculous. Tattoo artists often complain of the unwillingness of customers to spend the quoted amount of money for â€Å"a tattoo [they] are going to wear for the rest of [their] life† (Sanders 1988:229). It is more acceptable in American culture to invest in short term materialistic purchases, therefore the legitimate tattoo artists are constantly being monitored and regimented under strict laws imposed by the government. Despite the absurdity of the purchasing process, the reasoning that propels the American society to obtain tattoos is just as flawed. Some reasons people give to explain permanently marking their skin include, â€Å"they were drunk, it’s a macho thing, to fit in with a crowd or even worse, for no reason at all† (DeMello 1995:42). Western society seems to have a complete disregard for the spiritual origins of body art. Tattoo artist are even witness to clients’ apathy, avoiding â€Å"working on people who are obviously under the influence of alcohol† (Sanders 1988:225). Where once there was a ceremonious celebration deeply rooted in spiritualism, in American society the only ritualistic ceremony is the receiving of a piece of paper on how to care for the recently acquired body art. This apathetic attitude of Americans is perhaps derived from the renouncing majority of the population. This bias stems from â€Å"very early ‘regulations’ [including] Moses’ remarks in Leviticus 19:28 forbidding any cuttings in the flesh or the printing of any marks† (Armstrong 2005:39). Since tattoos â€Å"were not sanctioned by the church† the profile for the tattooed archetype became unconventional (Schildkrout 2004:325). Christian belief has been adapted to the masses, forcing those who are tattooed into rebellion. The majority of people adopting body art include â€Å"bikers, convicts, and other ‘low lives’† (DeMello 1995:40). In Western society â€Å"the idea that the unmarked body as a sign of God’s work was linked to the Protestant reformation† and â€Å"the idea that body markings were a sign of savagery goes back even earlier† ( Schildkrout 2004:324). This is ironic considering tattoos in earlier cultures signified positions of high status. Perhaps the only entity that ties these drastic cultures together is the desire to increase their inherited beauty. â€Å"If the body is – metaphorically – a site of inscription to various degrees for various theorist, then cosmetic surgery can be seen, at one level, as an example of the literal and explicit enactment of this process of inscription† ( Schildkrout 2004:320), which is also seen in the aforementioned tribes with the rituals of scarification. DeMello also agrees that along with tattooing and piericing, that cosmetic surgery is seen as a form of â€Å"body modification† (DeMello 1995:37). â€Å"Not only does the tattooed skin negotiate between the individual and society and between different social groups, but also mediates relations between persons and spirits, the human and the divine† (Schildkrout 2004:321). Body art is a tradition that extends throughout the barriers of the world and although the forms in which they are found may be different, the idea of using your body as a canvas is universal. Although recently, several anthropologists agreed and have begun to examine body art more closely, looking at it â€Å"as a microcosm of society† (Schildkrout 2004:328), Roberts still believes that â€Å"there can be no ultimate explanation of symbolism† (Roberts 1988:51). He claims that â€Å"the blazes on trees in the Ndembu forest will remain many years after their purpose and meaning are forgotten. So it is with other inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:51). This is exemplified in the woman who endured the agonizing pain of her scarification to instigate a new chapter in her life. Nevertheless, soon after her body is placed into the ground, her skin will no longer be a visible indication of who she once was. She will become a memory and her body will no longer be used as a canvas. Anthropology of Tattoos He repeated this several times as a ceremonial pot was filled with gathering soot from the burning fire. After the artist finished his tedious design, he rubbed soot from the pot bottom deep into the slits, planting the bacteria that would infect the skin, raising the scars into their meaningful design. She felt accomplished that she withstood the agonizing pain while other members of her clan could not. Her newly inherited body art signified the birth of her first son, and left her with a renewed sense of beauty. This is the way of life common to people indigenous to the motherland of Africa. Scarification, however, is not the only form of body art that is used. Body painting, tattooing, and branding are all similar forms of body art, which can be found in Africa and other cultures throughout the world. The word â€Å"tattoo† comes from the Tahitian word â€Å"tattau†, which means â€Å"to mark†. Tattoos have evolved from being symbols of punishment that were given to identify criminals and slaves in the early ninth-century Chinese culture, into a pop-culture trend of using he skin as â€Å"a way of describing the exotic uncivilized other† within ourselves (Schildkrout 2004:324). For centuries, the body has been used as a â€Å"visible way of defining individual identity and cultural difference† (Schildkrout 2004:319). This cultural difference becomes apparent when studying the evolution of body art over time, especially when focusing on the differences between the Western and Non-Western cultures. People have been adorning their body with tattoos and piercing for centuries, but until recently, the thought of tattoos in ancient Egypt had been pushed aside. It has now been discovered that, without a doubt, tattoos did exist in that time period. Although miniscule, a group of enormously important tattooed mummies serve to help prove this point (Bianchi 1988:21). The first mummy to be discovered was one f a woman named Amunet, whose mummy was found in an excellent state of preservation, â€Å"most likely due to the fact that she served as a priestess of the goddess Harthor at Thebes during Dynasty XI†(Bianchi 1988:22). The tattoos on her body were comprised of a pattern of dots and dashes in an elliptical shape on her lower abdomen. The thighs and arms adorned the identical parallel lines of the aforementioned pattern. Two more women mummies, who were discovered and believed to be from the same time period, also had similar tattoos on their lower abdomen (Bianchi 1988:22). This group of woman represents an exclusive group of Egyptians who received tattoos in that time period, because there is no other evidence that shows tattoos to be a part of the Egyptian culture until the time of the Middle Kingdom. These abstract patterns associated with ritualistic tattooing survived into the New Kingdom. The Egyptians, more then likely, borrowed a form of tattooing from the Nubian civilization. Unlike the Nubians, whose purpose for tattooing is unknown, â€Å"the Egyptians appear to have regarded the tattoo as one of several vehicles by which the procreative powers of the deceased could be revived† (Bianchi 1988:27). Substantiation proposes that only women were associated with the decorating of their bodies and the ritualistic activities that went along with it. The art of tattooing began with the grouping of bluish or black dots and/or dashes forming abstract geometric patterns; that system of body art lasted for over two thousand years in ancient Egypt. Just like other ideas and goods, the idea of tattooing began to travel to several different societies, and has evolved into extremely different forms of art all over the world. In northeastern Zambia, the Tabwa â€Å"once covered themselves from head to foot with scarification† (Roberts 1988:41). The women of the Tabwa began receiving elaborate marks on their face, chest, and backs when they were young girls; it sometimes was continued at other points in a woman’s life (Roberts 1988:43) such as courting rituals and for woman wishing to bear a child. Male sculptors would trace designs and make incisions on the lesser intimate parts of the body; they left the rest for the women to do. ‘Tabwa women used razors to slit skin [that had been] plucked up with a fishhook or arrowhead. These incisions were then rubbed with soot from a pot bottom, an irritant that produced the desired raised cicatrices† (Roberts 1988:44). There were several reasons that this tradition was done, different to every age and gender in the tribe. Young women went through this process in order to achieve a state of perfection, which was required for those wanting to marry and have children (Roberts 1988:45). Scarification is a form of body art that was used in several tribes because according to their customs â€Å"beauty is not physically innate, but rather a function of the girl’s inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:45). Not only the Tabwa, scarification was used in such tribes as the Ga’anda and the Tiv; all the tribes have distinctly different purposes for doing this, but the process and effect of the body are the same. Another form of body art is body painting, which the people of the Southeast Nuba begin at a young age; but the meanings, and time frame from when they begin decorating the body are very different between males and females. The males paint themselves from the ages of 12 to 27 (Faris 1988:31). Typically, they only paint during the down time after the harvest season and before the next years planting begins. This is the time that the males are less involved in mandatory and productive activities; they spend their supplementary time with festive activities such as dance and sport participation. The restrictions placed on the men by their age, most importantly deal with the color that they use on their body—for example â€Å" only the older age groups are eligible to use the greatest elaboration in color, including the deep black and yellow [colors, that are] prohibited to younger grades†(Faris 1988:32). The change in elaboration allowed on the body does not coincide with any physiological changes, rather, it corresponds with changes â€Å"in productive status or sport† (Faris 1988:32). As they move up in grades from young laborers that answer to the elders, to mature men that own their own property, farm and family, their elaborate painting ability increases. The elders though, do not decorate their bodies; rather, they delegate and lead rituals for the younger men and enforce the rules of allowed color use. Therefore, the male body painting shows their progression thru ones life stages. The women of Southeast Nuba, â€Å"from the age of six years, until consummation of marriage, oil and ochre [their bodies] daily, in colors [that are] appropriate to their patri-clan section† (Faris 1988:34). After childbirth, they may continue to wear some oil and ochre on their shoulders. The personal body art of women is strictly related to the physiological changes that occur as a women goes through life, and are fixed around body scarification as a way of showing her changes. A woman’s scarification is so important, that â€Å"if a husband refuses to pay for a scarring specialist, a woman may seek a lover who will do so, and her first marriage will end† (Faris 1988:35). Unlike the males elaborate body art, a woman’s body art is simple, but it accumulates over her life-span and is very standardized, while a male’s body art is constantly changing. Body painting, tattooing and scarification thus far had been tools used by individuals to beautify their body and elevate their status within their tribe; this is not the case with all societies. In several other cultures, tattoos have been used in a form of branding, which is quite the opposite. Though tattooing and branding are â€Å"similar in that both involve the insertion of pigments under the skin to create permanent marks†, branding is implemented in order to lower an individuals status, to punish for crimes committed, to identify slaves, but most importantly, to eliminate personal identity (Schildkrout 2004:323). â€Å"The immutable alteration of human skin by branding needs to be considered in relation to, but ought not be confused with, tattooing† (Bianchi 1988:27). Two recent studies originating in South Africa elaborate on this subject, reporting on the political influence of tattooing â€Å"as a means of social control† (Schildkrout 2004:330). They site examples from Zambia in which a medical practitioner travels around to villages â€Å"in which witch craft accusations have been common†¦to inoculate people against people against witch craft† (Schildkrout 2004:331). The villagers would â€Å"submit to bodily inspections†, they were then treated â€Å"by getting numbers tattooed on their arms† (Schildkrout 2004:331). This is disturbingly reminiscent of Nazi concentration camps when an unfathomable number of Jewish people lost their personal identities and became known as only a number in the system to be disposed of. This â€Å"symbolic denial of personhood† served as a system â€Å"of control and surveillance† (Schildkrout 2004:323). This system of control was also imposed by â€Å"authoritarian regimes† in Southeast Asia (Schildkrout 2004:323). The Zhou and Ming Dynasties branded criminals as a form of punishment with â€Å"extensive, often full-body tattoos, with elaborate pictorial imagery as well as written inscriptions† (Schildkrout 2004:324) portraying their crime. This form of tattooing is definitely contrary to traditional methods. Similarly in Brazil, branding was used to mark convicts by the penal authorities. Penal tattoos derived their power from subjugation of the marked convicts. The humiliation of being visibly branded was a significant component of the convict’s punishment. In an act of resistance, those that had been branded â€Å"were known to reclaim their bodies by writing over the inscriptions or by displaying them in new social situations† (Schildkrout 2004:324). The branded, therefore, became the empowered, restoring the function of the tattoo to being personally-motivated. This personal motivation is perhaps most notable in Western cultures, specifically North America. In America, the Native Americans used body painting in many ways, usually connected with ethnic identity, social roles or marital status (Rubin 1988:179). The Natives also used the body as a canvas in ritualistic ceremonies, on warriors going into battle and for the beautification of their women. When the Europeans discovered America, they brought with them slaves from Africa and they introduced branding of the slaves into the American culture. After the civil war, when the slaves had been freed, branding was still embedded in American culture through groups of people including gang members and convicts. Though â€Å"branding is often associated with involuntary marking and the denial of personhood†, it has also â€Å"been adopted in contemporary Western body culture as an assertion of group identity, for example in college fraternities† (Schildkrout 2004:323). Tattoos were also prevalent in other parts of America, including Alaska. Among the Eskimos â€Å"[t]he function of these art forms [was] – essentially manifesting one’s place or role within the hierarchy of hunting life† (Gritton 1988:190). With the introduction and adaptation of the western civilization in Alaskan culture, â€Å"the marks of a hunter or hunter’s wife served no purpose in their new lives and were understandably abandoned† (Gritton 1988:190). The function of body art and tattooing has been Americanized, evolving from its native origins to incorporate self expression. This self expression has mushroomed from a manor of identifying oneself to a way of gaining attention through shock value. Though ever-changing, all forms of body art mentioned play enormous roles in the lives of people. Certain non-Western cultures are based around the ability to use skin as a visible way of defining status or bettering their self-image, in order to attract companions. So the artists who are allowed to perform the act of adorning bodies with different designs are regarded as having a very important place in the society. They are â€Å"scarring specialist† (Faris 1988:35), â€Å"body artists† (Drewal 1988:84), but most importantly, they are known as â€Å"[the] one-who-creates- art† (Drewal 1988:84). In the non-Native American culture, however, the general attitude towards tattoo artist in present-day American culture is less than appreciative. Extreme critics even characterize tattooist as opportunist, exclusively seeking monetary gain (Sanders 1988:229). â€Å"The tattooist interest in artistry and control is often in conflict with his profit orientation†, revealing the major flaw within the American society (Sanders 1988:229). This is the major difference in western and non-western cultures. Body tattoos in western society are an object to be purchased. Americans obtain tattoos in the same manner that they acquire a new Louis Vuitton handbag. They purchase them as accessories, which is in stark contrast to the non-western cultures, who acquire tattoos as an essential ritual in their society. With this is mind, the process in which American’s purchases body art seems slightly ridiculous. Tattoo artists often complain of the unwillingness of customers to spend the quoted amount of money for â€Å"a tattoo [they] are going to wear for the rest of [their] life† (Sanders 1988:229). It is more acceptable in American culture to invest in short term materialistic purchases, therefore the legitimate tattoo artists are constantly being monitored and regimented under strict laws imposed by the government. Despite the absurdity of the purchasing process, the reasoning that propels the American society to obtain tattoos is just as flawed. Some reasons people give to explain permanently marking their skin include, â€Å"they were drunk, it’s a macho thing, to fit in with a crowd or even worse, for no reason at all† (DeMello 1995:42). Western society seems to have a complete disregard for the spiritual origins of body art. Tattoo artist are even witness to clients’ apathy, avoiding â€Å"working on people who are obviously under the influence of alcohol† (Sanders 1988:225). Where once there was a ceremonious celebration deeply rooted in spiritualism, in American society the only ritualistic ceremony is the receiving of a piece of paper on how to care for the recently acquired body art. This apathetic attitude of Americans is perhaps derived from the renouncing majority of the population. This bias stems from â€Å"very early ‘regulations’ [including] Moses’ remarks in Leviticus 19:28 forbidding any cuttings in the flesh or the printing of any marks† (Armstrong 2005:39). Since tattoos â€Å"were not sanctioned by the church† the profile for the tattooed archetype became unconventional (Schildkrout 2004:325). Christian belief has been adapted to the masses, forcing those who are tattooed into rebellion. The majority of people adopting body art include â€Å"bikers, convicts, and other ‘low lives’† (DeMello 1995:40). In Western society â€Å"the idea that the unmarked body as a sign of God’s work was linked to the Protestant reformation† and â€Å"the idea that body markings were a sign of savagery goes back even earlier† ( Schildkrout 2004:324). This is ironic considering tattoos in earlier cultures signified positions of high status. Perhaps the only entity that ties these drastic cultures together is the desire to increase their inherited beauty. â€Å"If the body is – metaphorically – a site of inscription to various degrees for various theorist, then cosmetic surgery can be seen, at one level, as an example of the literal and explicit enactment of this process of inscription† ( Schildkrout 2004:320), which is also seen in the aforementioned tribes with the rituals of scarification. DeMello also agrees that along with tattooing and piericing, that cosmetic surgery is seen as a form of â€Å"body modification† (DeMello 1995:37). â€Å"Not only does the tattooed skin negotiate between the individual and society and between different social groups, but also mediates relations between persons and spirits, the human and the divine† (Schildkrout 2004:321). Body art is a tradition that extends throughout the barriers of the world and although the forms in which they are found may be different, the idea of using your body as a canvas is universal. Although recently, several anthropologists agreed and have begun to examine body art more closely, looking at it â€Å"as a microcosm of society† (Schildkrout 2004:328), Roberts still believes that â€Å"there can be no ultimate explanation of symbolism† (Roberts 1988:51). He claims that â€Å"the blazes on trees in the Ndembu forest will remain many years after their purpose and meaning are forgotten. So it is with other inscriptions† (Roberts 1988:51). This is exemplified in the woman who endured the agonizing pain of her scarification to instigate a new chapter in her life. Nevertheless, soon after her body is placed into the ground, her skin will no longer be a visible indication of who she once was. She will become a memory and her body will no longer be used as a canvas.